References
Berend K, van Hulsteijn LH, Gans RO (2012) Chloride: the queen of electrolytes? Eur J Intern Med 23:203–211
Latta TA (1832) Relative to the treatment of cholera by the copious injection of aqueous and saline fluids into the veins. Lancet 2:274–277
Prough DS (1996) Crystalloids versus colloids in the perioperative period. Anesthesiol Clin N Am 1:341–368
Morris CG, Low J (2008) Metabolic acidosis in the critically ill: part 2. Causes and treatment. Anaesthesia 63:396–411
Wilcox CS (1983) Regulation of renal blood flow by plasma chloride. J Clin Invest 71:726–735
Chowdhury AH, Cox EF, Francis ST et al (2012) A randomized, controlled, double-blind crossover study on the effects of 2-L infusions of 0.9% saline and plasma-lyte(R) 148 on renal blood flow velocity and renal cortical tissue perfusion in healthy volunteers. Ann Surg 256:18–24
Rein JL (2019) “I Don’t Get No Respect”—the role of chloride in acute kidney injury. Am J Physiol 316:F587–F605
Kellum JA, Song M, Almasri E (2006) Hyperchloremic acidosis increases circulating inflammatory molecules in experimental sepsis. Chest 130:962–967
Prowle JR, Chua H-R, Bagshaw SM, Bellomo R (2012) Clinical review: volume of fluid resuscitation and the incidence of acute kidney injury—a systematic review. Crit Care 16:230
McCluskey SA, Karkouti K, Wijeysundera D, Minkovich L, Tait G, Beattie WS (2013) Hyperchloremia after noncardiac surgery is independently associated with increased morbidity and mortality: a propensity-matched cohort study. Anesth Analg 117:412–421
Lee JY, Hong TH, Lee KW, Jung MJ, Lee JG, Lee SH (2016) Hyperchloremia is associated with 30-day mortality in major trauma patients: a retrospective observational study. Scand J Trauma Resusc Emerg Med 24:117
Yunos NM, Bellomo R, Hegarty C, Story D, Ho L, Bailey M (2012) Association between a chloride-liberal vs chloride- restrictive intravenous fluid administration strategy and kidney injury in critically ill adults. JAMA 308:1566–1572
Zhang Z, Xu X, Fan H, Li D, Deng H (2013) Higher serum chloride concentrations are associated with acute kidney injury in unselected critically ill patients. BMC Nephrol 14:235
Yunos NM, Bellomo R, Glassford N et al (2015) Chloride-liberal vs. chloride restrictive intravenous fluid administration and acute kidney injury: an extended analysis. Intensive Care Med 41:257–264
Suetrong B, Pisitsak C, Boyd JH, Russell JA, Walley KR (2016) Hyperchloremia and moderate increase in serum chloride are associated with acute kidney injury in severe sepsis and septic shock patients. Crit Care 20:315
Raghunathan K, Shaw A, Nathanson B et al (2014) Association between the choice of IV crystalloid and in-hospital mortality among critically ill adults with sepsis. Crit Care Med 42:1585–1591
Shaw AD, Schermer CR, Lobo DN et al (2015) Impact of intravenous fluid composition on outcomes in patients with systemic inflammatory response syndrome. Crit Care 19:334
Yessayan L, Neyra JA, Canepa-Escaro F, Vasquez-Rios G, Heung M, Yee J (2017) Effect of hyperchloremia on acute kidney injury in critically ill septic patients: a retrospective cohort study. BMC Nephrol 18:346
Young P, Bailey M, Beasley R, Henderson S et al (2015) Effect of a buffered crystalloid solution vs saline on acute kidney injury among patients in the intensive care unit: the SPLIT randomized clinical trial. JAMA 314:1701–1710
Semler MW, Wanderer JP, Ehrenfeld JM et al (2017) Balanced crystalloids versus saline in the intensive care unit. The SALT randomized trial. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 195:1362–1372
Semler MW, Self WH, Wanderer JP et al (2018) Balanced crystalloids versus saline in critically ill adults. N Engl J Med 378:829–839
Reverter E, Poch E, Fernández J (2018) Balanced crystalloids versus saline in critically ill adults. N Engl J Med 378:1949
Hammond DA, Lam SW, Rech MA et al (2019) Balanced crystalloids versus saline in critically ill adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Ann Pharmacother. https://doi.org/10.1177/1060028019866420
Xue M, Zhang X, Liu F et al (2019) Effects of chloride content of intravenous crystalloid solutions in critically ill adult patients: a meta-analysis with trial sequential analysis of randomized trials. Ann Intensive Care 9:30
Liu C, Lu G, Wang D et al (2019) Balanced crystalloids versus normal saline for fluid resuscitation in critically ill patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis with trial sequential analysis. Am J Emerg Med. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajem.2019.02.045
Hammond NE, Bellomo R, Gallagher M et al (2017) The Plasma-Lyte 148 v Saline (PLUS) study protocol: a multicentre, randomised controlled trial of the effect of intensive care fluid therapy on mortality. Crit Care Resusc 19:239–246
Zampieri FG, Azevedo LCP, Correa TD et al (2017) Study protocol for the balanced solution versus saline in intensive care study (BaSICS): a factorial randomised trial. Crit Care Resusc 19:175–182
Lombardi G, Ferraro PM, Bargagli M, Naticchia A, D’Alonzo S, Gambaro G (2019) Hyperchloremia and acute kidney injury: a retrospective observational cohort study on a general mixed medical-surgical not ICU-hospitalized population. Intern Emerg Med. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11739-019-02165-6
Self WH, Semler MW, Wanderer JP et al (2018) Balanced crystalloids versus saline in noncritically ill adults. N Engl J Med 378:819–828
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Statements on human and animal rights
This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.
Informed consent
None.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Regolisti, G., Maggiore, U., Rossi, G.M. et al. Hyperchloremia and acute kidney injury: a spurious association or a worrisome reality?. Intern Emerg Med 15, 187–189 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11739-019-02213-1
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11739-019-02213-1